Review of process defects and failure behaviors of continuous fiber-reinforced composite materials via 3D printing
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摘要: 因设计自由度高、无需模具和快速制造等优点，连续纤维增强3D打印已成为当今最具创新性的先进复合材料成型技术之一。本文综述了连续纤维增强3D打印复合材料工艺缺陷及失效行为的最新研究进展，引入了“干/湿/干湿-混合”的概念对打印工艺进行了系统性分类阐述，重点介绍了由于工艺过程引入的三种缺陷及其特点。随后，归纳了连续纤维增强3D打印复合材料的失效力学行为，并分析了引发失效的主要原因。最后，针对如何减少工艺缺陷、改善失效模式和降本增效对连续纤维增强复合材料3D打印技术的未来进行了展望。Abstract: Constraint-free design, rapid production, and the absence of mold requirements are just a few of the reasons why continuous fiber-reinforced 3D printing (CFR3DP) has emerged as one of the most innovative advanced composite manufacturing technologies nowadays. This study examines the recent developments in research concerning process defects and the failure behaviors of CFR3DP. In order to systematically categorize the printing process, the notion of “dry/wet/dry-wet-mixed” has been introduced, with an emphasis on the three distinct groups of defects that may be introduced during the additive manufacturing process. Following this, an analysis was conducted to summarize the failure behaviors of CFR3DP while also identifying the primary causes of failure. In conclusion, we propose the prospect of CFR3DP with respect to cost reduction, efficiency, the mitigation of process defects, and improvement of failure mode.
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Key words:
- 3D Printing /
- Continuous Fiber /
- Process Defects /
- Failure Modes /
- Composite Materials
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图 1 综述连续纤维增强3D打印技术：工艺、缺陷与失效模式
Figure 1. Review of continuous fiber-reinforced 3D printing: processes, defects and failure modes
图 2 连续纤维增强复合材料的湿法3D打印：(a)-(b)原位浸渍熔融沉积；(c)液态沉积成型；和(d)直接墨水书写
Figure 2. Wet 3D printing of continuous fiber-reinforced composites: (a)-(b) in-situ prepreg fused deposition; (c) liquid deposition modelling; and (d) direct ink writing.
图 3 连续纤维增强复合材料的干法3D打印：(a)材料挤出熔融沉积和(b)激光辅助固结
Figure 3. Dry 3D printing of continuous fiber-reinforced composites: (a) material extrusion fused deposition; and (b) laser-assisted consolidation
图 4 连续纤维增强复合材料的干湿混合法3D打印：(a)预浸丝束共挤出和(b)紫外光辅助固结
Figure 4. Dry-wet mixed 3D printing of continuous fiber-reinforced composites: (a) prepreg tow co-extrusion; and (b) UV-assisted consolidation
图 5 连续纤维增强3D打印复合材料的工艺缺陷分类
Figure 5. Classification of process defects in continuous fiber reinforced 3D printing composite materials
图 6 层间孔隙的微观形貌：(a)典型的层间孔隙SEM照片[87]，(b)不同纤维体积含量构件的SEM照片[88]，(c)典型的层间孔隙显微CT照片[86]和(d)编织多层复合材料中的层间孔隙显微CT照片[89]
Figure 6. Microscopic morphology of inter-layer voids: (a) the typical SEM picture of interlayer voids [87]; (b) the SEM photo of parts with different fiber volume contents [88]; (c) the typical micro-CT of interlayer voids snapshot [86]; and (d) the micro-CT photo of inter-layer voids in woven multilayer composites [89]
图 7 列间孔隙的微观形貌：(a)含典型列间孔隙的横截面和界面特征[92]；(b)不同的堆叠方式形成不同列间孔隙形貌[93]，(c)相邻两列之间树脂的合并过程原理[93]；(d)MarkForged打印机制造弯曲测试样本横截面[93]；(e)3D打印连续玻璃纤维增强尼龙的样品的显微照片[94] 和(f)多列样本的横截面[95]
Figure 7. Microscopic morphology of inter-column voids: (a) the cross-section and interface characteristics of typical inter-column voids [92]; (b) the different inter-column pore morphologies formed by two kinds of stacking methods[93]; (c) the merging process of resin between two adjacent columns [93]; (d) the cross section of a bending test sample manufactured by MarkForged printer [93]; (e) the micrograph of a 3D printed continuous glass fiber-reinforced nylon sample [94] ; and (f) the cross-section of multi-column sample[95]
图 8 纤维束缺陷的微观形貌：(a)一个丝束在不同放大倍数下的SEM照片[86]；(b)-(d)纤维束横断面显微照片[86, 93, 96]，(e)纤维束边界上的弱界面[92]；(f)纤维束内部不规则孔隙[91]和(g)碳纤维和PLA树脂之间的弱界面[97]
Figure 8. Microscopic morphology of fiber bundle defects: (a) the SEM photos of a fiber bundle at different magnifications [86]; (b)-(d) the micrographs of fiber bundle cross-sections [86, 93, 96]; (e) the weak interface on the fiber bundle boundary [92]; (f) the irregular voids inside the fiber bundle [91]; and (g) the weak interface between carbon fiber and PLA resin [97]
图 9 纤维拔出失效模式：(a)界面性能和断裂模式的演变 [95]；(b)损伤演化过程和失效机制[96]；(c)纤维束边界上的弱界面[89]；(d)断口的光学显微照片[96]和(e)断口的SEM照片[97]
Figure 9. Fiber pull-out failure mode: (a) the evolution of interface properties and fracture modes [95]; (b) the damage evolution process and failure mechanism [96]; (c) the weak interface at fiber bundle boundary [89]; (d) the optical micrograph of the fracture surface [96]; and (e) the SEM photograph of the fracture surface [97]
图 10 纤维束缺陷的形成与纤维拔出的改善：(a)纤维束缺陷和其导致的弱界面 [101]；(b)一维流动达西定律的主要参数[102-104]；(c)宏观和微观浸渍现象[103]；和(d)湿法和干法连续纤维3D打印的单束纱线的破坏断口[105]
Figure 10. Formation of fiber bundle defects and improvement of fiber pull-out: (a) fiber bundle defects and the resulting weak interfaces [101]; (b) Main parameters of Darcy’s law for one-dimensional flow [102-104]; (c) macroscopic and microscopic impregnation phenomena [103]; and (d) failure fractures of single bundle yarns for wet and dry continuous fiber 3D printing [105]
图 11 分层失效模式：(a)演化方式与微观形貌 [107]；(b)弯曲载荷下的失效模式和宏观形貌[95]；(c)拉伸载荷下的失效模式、宏观和微观形貌[95]和(d)不同种类纤维增强复合材料的分层微观形貌[108]
Figure 11. Delamination failure mode: (a) the evolution mode and microscopic morphology [107]; (b) the failure mode and macroscopic morphology under the bending load [95]; (c) the failure mode, macroscopic and microscopic morphology under tensile loads [95]; and (d) the delamination micromorphology of different types of fiber-reinforced composite materials [108]
图 12 层间力学性能的表征：(a) DCB试验 [109-112]；(b) ENF试验 [109]；(c) ILSS试验 [113]；(d)纤维桥联现象[109]；(e) DCB试验剥离表面的SEM照片[108]；(f)ENF试验后断裂表面的SEM照片[109] ；和(g)ILSS试验中分层损伤演化的DIC云图[113]
Figure 12. Characterization of interlayer mechanical properties: (a) DCB testing [109-112]; (b) ENF testing [109]; (c) ILSS testing [113]; (d) fiber bridging phenomenon [109]; (e) SEM photo of peeling surface in DCB testing [108]; (f) SEM photo of fracture surface after ENF testing [109]; and (g) DIC cloud image of delamination damage evolution in ILSS testing [113]
图 13 弯曲开裂失效模式：(a)裂纹的产生和演化过程原理 [99]；(b)四级演化过程的微观照片[99]和(c)弯曲载荷下的裂纹萌生和发展过程[95]
Figure 13. Bending cracking failure mode: (a) the crack generation and evolution process [99]; (b) the microscopic of the fourth-level evolution process [99]; and (c) the crack initiation and development process under bending loads [95]
图 14 工艺缺陷与弯曲开裂断口：(a)列间孔隙形成过程 [86]；(b)弯曲开裂断口的SEM照片 [117]；和(c)弯曲载荷下压缩区与拉伸区的SEM照片 [118]
Figure 14. Process defects and bending cracking fractures: (a) formation process of inter-column pores [86]; (b) SEM photos of bending cracking fractures [117]; and (c) SEM photos of compression zone and tensile zone under bending load [118]
表 1 根据“干/湿/干湿-混合”概念分类的连续纤维增强3D打印复合材料的制备工艺
Table 1. Manufacturing processes of continuous fiber-reinforced 3D printing composites classified according to the concept of“dry/wet/dry-wet-mixed”
Classification Manufacturing processes Fibers/Reinforcement Consumables/Matrix Wet method In-situ impregnation fused
deposition [35-38]High-performance continuous dry
fibers: carbon fibers [45], glass fibers [46], Aramid fibers [47], basalt fibers [48];
Natural dry fibers: flax fibers [49], pineapple leave fibers [50]Thermoplastic resin: Polyetheretherketone [52], Polyphenylene sulfide [53], Polyamides [54], Polypropylene [55], Polycarbonate [56], Polylactic acid [57];
Thermoplastic resins with discontinuous fibrous reinforcements [58-59]Liquid deposition molding [46-48] Epoxy resin [46-48] Direct ink writing [49-51] Acrylic ink [50];
Liquid crystal elastomer [51]Dry method Material extrusion fused
deposition [72, 75-76]Continuous fiber thermoplastic [67-71];
Thermoset prepreg [72-73]/ Laser-Assisted Consolidation [77-78] Wet-dry-mixed method Prepreg tow co-extrusion [26, 79-81] Continuous fiber thermoplastic [70-71];
Thermoset prepreg [72-73]Thermoplastic resin [52-57];
Thermoplastic resins with discontinuous fibrous reinforcements [58-59]UV-Assisted Consolidation [74, 84] Continuous fiber light-cured prepreg [74] Light curing resins [74];
Light-thermal dual-cure resins [84]
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表 2 连续纤维增强3D打印复合材料的失效行为、相关工艺缺陷、失效机制与改善方式
Table 2. Failure behavior, related process defects, failure mechanisms, and improvement methods of continuous fiber-reinforced 3D printing composite materials
Failure behavior Related process defects Failure mechanisms Improvement methods Fiber pull-out [92, 98-100] Fiber bundle
defects [86, 91, 96-97]The crack initiates at the weak interface between the fiber and the matrix and then propagates until the fiber is pulled out [99] Pre-impregnating the fibers [104], print using dry method [104], increase molding pressure [98] and fiber pretreatment using sizing agents [105] Delamination [95, 106-107] Inter-layer voids [87-89],
inter-column voids [92-95],
and fiber bundle
defects [86, 91, 96-97]Weak interfaces sprout and expand rapidly along periodic distributions [106] Reduce process defects: improve
nozzles [113], vacuum printing [90] and laser-assisted heating [77]
Change the distribution of defects and weak interfaces to prevent rapid crack growth [114]Bending cracking [95, 99] Inter-column voids [92-95,115] and fiber bundle
defects [ 96-97,116-117]Cracks initiate from the upper surface of the tensile side and gradually expand toward the neutral axis until the structure is completely broken [95, 99] Perform hot pressing post-processing [91], adjust printing parameter settings [117] and adopt variable stiffness structural
design [118]
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