Defects in additive manufacturing of fiber-reinforced composites: research progress on formation causes and online monitoring
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摘要: 纤维增强树脂基复合材料(FRC)因其高比强度、耐腐蚀和低成本等优异特性而被广泛应用于航空航天、轨道交通、风电能源等领域。然而，复合材料在成型过程中会发生复杂的物理与化学变化，不可避免地会产生内部缺陷；特别是在增材制造(AM)过程中，快速的升温-降温循环进一步增加了缺陷形成的概率。因此，成形缺陷与在线监测的研究对于提高纤维增强复合材料增材制造的质量具有重要意义。本文总结了复合材料树脂基体中残余应力、孔洞缺陷、富树脂缺陷以及界面缺陷的形成机制，分析了上述缺陷对于复合材料宏观力学性能的影响，探明了各类缺陷的微观成因。继而，结合缺陷的形成原因归纳了基于光纤布拉格光栅传感器、应变和位移传感器、声发射技术和热力学监测的在线监测技术，对其技术特点、应用案例及局限性展开了深入讨论，以期为相关的科学研究提供参考和借鉴。Abstract: Fiber-reinforced resin matrix composites (FRC) are extensively utilized in sectors such as aerospace, rail transportation, and wind energy due to their exceptional properties, including high specific strength, corrosion resistance, and cost-effectiveness. However, during the molding process, these composites undergo complex physical and chemical transformations that inevitably lead to the formation of internal defects. Notably, the rapid thermal cycling associated with additive manufacturing (AM) processes further escalates the likelihood of defect formation. Consequently, research into manufacturing defects and online monitoring is crucial for enhancing the quality of FRC produced through additive manufacturing. This study provides an in-depth summary of the mechanisms behind the formation of defects within the resin matrix of composites, including residual stress, porosity, resin-rich areas, and interfacial defects. It analyzes the impact of these defects on the macroscopic mechanical properties of the composites and elucidates the micro-level origins of each defect type. Subsequently, the paper consolidates online detection techniques based on Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors, strain and displacement sensors, acoustic emission technology, and thermodynamic monitoring. It discusses the technical characteristics, application scenarios, and limitations of these techniques, aiming to offer insights and references for scientific research in this field.
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Key words:
- additive manufacturing /
- defects /
- fiber-reinforced composites /
- online monitoring /
- formation causes
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图 8 (a)带有预热部分的打印喷嘴；(b) 预热部分关闭、加热块温度设置为410℃时打印喷嘴和复合丝的温度分布；(c)当预热温度设置为405℃、加热块温度设置为410℃时打印喷嘴和复合丝的温度分布[68]
Figure 8. (a) Printing nozzle with preheating part; (b) Temperature distribution of the printing nozzle and composite filament when the preheating part is off, and the temperature of heating block is set equal to 410℃; (c) Temperature distribution of the printing nozzle and composite filament when preheating temperature is set equal to 405℃, and the temperature of heating block is set equal to 410℃[68]
图 10 (a) 3D 打印CFRC0°方向纤维增强方向的示意图以及FBG传感器和热电偶的位置，(b)包含嵌入式FBG传感器和热电偶的3D打印CFRC试样[70]
Figure 10. (a) Schematic of the midplane of a 0° fiber reinforcement orientation of a 3D printed CFRTPC with the location of the FBG sensor and the thermocouple, and (b) picture of a 3D printed CFRTPC specimen containing an embedded FBG sensor and a thermocouple[70]
表 1 热塑性树脂结晶理论模型
Table 1. Theoretical model for thermoplastic resin crystallization
Purpose of model Equation Reference Crystallization kinetic equation $ {X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}={X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}^{\infty }\left[{w}_{1}{F}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}1}+\left(1-{w}_{1}\right){F}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}2}\right] $ [31] Isothermal crystallization process $ {F}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{i}}=1-exp\left({-K}_{\mathrm{i}}\left(T\right){n}_{\mathrm{i}}\cdot {t}^{\mathrm{n}-1}\right) $ [31] Non-isothermal crystallization process $ {F}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{i}}=1-exp\left[-{\int }_{0}^{t}{K}_{\mathrm{i}}\left(T\right){n}_{\mathrm{i}}\cdot {t}^{{\mathrm{n}}_{\mathrm{i}}-1}dt\right] $ [31] Crystallization of PEEK $ {X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}={X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}^{\infty }\left(1-exp\left(-{K}_{\mathrm{P}\mathrm{E}\mathrm{E}\mathrm{K}}\left(T\right)\cdot {t}^{\mathrm{n}}\right)\right) $ [32] Crystallization shrinkage strain $ {\dot{\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm{r}}^{\mathrm{c}}=\dfrac{-1+\sqrt{1+\left(4/3\right)\left[\dfrac{\rho {\left({X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}\right)}^{\mathrm{n}+1}-\rho {\left({X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}\right)}^{\mathrm{n}}}{\rho {\left({X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}\right)}^{\mathrm{n}}}\right]}}{2} $ [29] Linear solid kinetic-viscoelastic $ {S}^{\prime}={{S}^{\prime}_{\mathrm{a}\mathrm{m}}}\left(1-{X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}\right)+{{S}^{\prime}_{\mathrm{c}\mathrm{r}}}\left({X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}\right) $
$ {S}^{\prime\prime}={{S}^{\prime\prime}_{{\mathrm{a}}\mathrm{m}}}\left(1-{X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}\right)+{{S}^{\prime\prime}_{{\mathrm{c}\mathrm{r}}}}\left({X}_{\mathrm{v}\mathrm{c}}\right) $[30] Notes：Xmc is the ratio of the mass of the crystalline phase (mc) to the mass of the total crystalline phase; Xvc is the ratio of mass (mt) or crystal volume (Vc) to total volume; S' and S'' are the storage and loss bending compliance; S'am and S''am are the storage and loss bending compliance of non-crystal volume; S'cr and S''cr are the storage and loss bending compliance of crystal volume; Fvci is the normalized volume fraction crystallinity for the ith mechanism; w1 is the weight factors; Ki is the crystallization rate constant for the ith mechanism; ni is the Avrami exponent 
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