Abstract: The recurrent outbreaks of viral infectious diseases have long posed persistent challenges to public health security and social operation. Among them, enveloped viruses, due to their lipid envelope and surface fusion proteins, are more sensitive to the surface properties and interfacial microenvironment of materials. Therefore, developing antiviral functional materials targeting their key structural components is of great significance. In recent years, significant progress has been made in the study of metal and metal oxide nanomaterials, carbon-based nanomaterials, as well as polymer and bio-based nanomaterials against enveloped viruses, demonstrating promising application potential in areas such as environmental surface protection, filtration media, protective textiles, and medical contact interfaces. This review systematically summarizes the structural characteristics, representative antiviral performances, and dominant mechanisms of the above three types of material systems, with a focus on key processes including direct contact disruption, ion release, reactive oxygen species induction, surface adsorption blocking, receptor mimicry, and interfacial synergistic regulation. On this basis, the major challenges currently faced by antiviral functional materials are discussed, covering evaluation standards, long-term stability, biosafety, and engineering applications. Furthermore, future directions are prospected in terms of multicomponent synergistic construction, structure–property relationship elucidation, and application scenario-oriented design. This review aims to provide a reference for the rational design and translational application of functional nanomaterials against enveloped viruses.